Wilderness Search and Rescue
Not all rescuers need to be trained to the most advanced levels of wilderness operations, and individuals should always operate within the limits of their experience and training. Before attempting to respond to any rescue incident, responsible persons should ensure that every field team has the breadth and depth of experience to operate safely and make sound decisions. The safety of the rescuer(s) and rescue team should always be the first priority.
Basic Stages of a SAR Mission
Awareness : notification is received by some means that an individual or group is in distress and/or requires assistance
Initial Action : responsible authorities evaluate the information received and determine the degree of emergency. This can range from uncertainty about the safety of the party (e.g., overdue friends), to alertness of a possible problem (e.g., known incident with limited information), to distress (e.g., reasonable certainty that a party is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance)
Planning: develop a strategy for search and rescue and identify the resources needed to carry out the mission
Conclusion: no one is in distress; rescue is concluded; debriefing and demobilization.
Overview
The following are essential for a safe and efficient SAR operation:
Provide for the safety of rescuers and patients. This must include injury prevention from environmental and rescuer causes; providing water, shelter, food, and a mechanism for personal hygiene
Communicate needs and changes during all phases of the operation. Call for backup at the earliest possible time. Ensure that rescuers are apprised of the activities and needs of others. Keep command, base of operations, medical control, and incoming rescuers informed. Communication is the most frequently missed or poorly managed aspect
Locate and reach the patient with medical-rescue personnel and equipment. Implement organized and methodical procedures for finding the patient as soon as safety of rescuers and the patient has been ascertained
Treat and monitor the patient during evacuation. Support basic personal hygiene and physiologic functions. Psychological support is essential. This may be as basic as verbal encouragement from a familiar and constant voice. Help the patient feel involved with the rescue by communicating as often as the situation permits.
Preplanning
Before engaging in any type of technical rescue, responsible individuals should perform a risk assessment to identify necessary skills and capabilities
The preplan should consider the types of terrain in the response area, people exposed to that terrain, types of accidents likely to occur, and available resources
Exposed personnel must be specifically trained for terrain and environmental considerations commonly encountered in the theater of operation. For example, a rescuer responding to a fallen ice climber incident in the wilderness must be trained in both high-angle ice rescue and wilderness SAR
Having wilderness skills enables rescuers to work independently of external support and resources in nonwilderness incidents. For example, self-sufficiency and ability to function with minimal external resources are beneficial when working in the aftermath of an earthquake, or when responding to a transmission tower incident far from a road.
Research the Location
Review all geographic and medical concerns specific to the rescue location, identifying in advance any hazards that pose a threat
Determine topography and potential evacuation routes before beginning travel
Make certain that the location of cached equipment and supplies, and phone numbers for available rescue resources and local hospitals, are communicated to each member of the party.
Rescue Resources
The outdoor recreation and rescue communities emphasize personal responsibility. If the group has the skills and technical abilities to accomplish self-rescue, the participants must know their limitations. If necessary, members must be capable and willing to mobilize organized rescue resources. Organized rescue is often more expeditious and mitigates the risk of rescue
Rescuers not familiar with an environment or type of response should operate only under direct supervision and care of appropriately trained personnel. For example, placing an untrained person in a high-angle rope rescue situation to perform patient care endangers that person, the patient, and others involved in the operation
Within the United States, law enforcement agencies are generally responsible for the command structure and direction of an operation. Mutual aid contracts or interagency agreements may give certain agencies responsibility for specific incidents. When adventuring outside the United States, always discuss rescue issues (e.g., forms of payment, available resources, notification systems) with the foreign US embassy. In the United States, follow these guidelines:
County sheriffs have jurisdiction in unincorporated county areas and in most Bureau of Land Management and US Forest Service lands
City police have jurisdiction on city lands and, in some cases, adjacent watersheds.
Fire districts and city fire departments may have jurisdiction over hazardous materials or urban SAR operations
Emergency medical services (EMS) usually have jurisdiction over medical care of sick or injured persons, but may have limited backcountry travel and wilderness rescue capabilities
The National Park Service has jurisdiction over its lands except where otherwise mandated
Support Services
Any single responsible agency may not have the most efficient means of conducting a rescue operation. It may delegate or request help from other groups that are more capable of performing the actual rescue, such as the following:
Volunteer SAR and sheriff's SAR groups usually have responsibility and authority to conduct an operation
Technically specialized volunteer teams, in addition to regular SAR teams, may be available and perhaps certified by national organizations. These organizations include the National Ski Patrol System, National Cave Rescue Commission, Mountain Rescue Association, and National Association for Search and Rescue
Commercial enterprises or professional individuals or teams, even if they are not specifically certified, may be able to provide some benefit to an SAR mission. Such groups include mountain, river, and bicycle guides; commercial mine rescue teams; and military units.
Personal Preparation
Rescue operations are inherently dangerous. No amount of preparation can completely remove every danger. Rescue party members should possess personal skills specific to the terrain where they will operate.
Fitness
Participate in a regular physical fitness program
Psychological fitness:
Be prepared to put personal and team safety above patient outcomes
Be responsible for your personal safety
Anticipate exposure to distressing and intense situations
Because poor patient outcomes and other losses are possible on rescue missions, critical incident stress debriefing should occur.
General Safety Guidelines
Use appropriate safety equipment for the environment
Make sure that anchors are secure. Tie in anyone near an edge or precipice
Make sure that helmets and eye protection are worn by persons at risk for falls or exposure to falling objects
Wear personal flotation devices when performing rescues near or in the water
Employ safety checks on all critical tasks and rescue system elements
Practice using all technical-rigging systems before they are needed in an actual rescue operation
Have backup systems available whenever possible
Training
Most rescue teams offer standardized training to educate eligible members in the basic skills they need to operate. Graduated levels of membership often designate promotion of responsibility after completion of advanced training. SAR and other rescue conferences offer additional opportunities to expand knowledge and skills. Attention should be placed on basic survival, navigation, thermoregulation, water procurement and disinfection, and personal safety.
Personal Equipment
Most rescue teams have required and optional equipment lists relevant to the local environment and mission possibilities. This section provides only general considerations and guidelines.
Rugged internal frame pack. Consider having both a smaller “hasty” or “24-hour” pack, and a larger pack for extended missions
Appropriate footwear for the mission type; most commonly heavy leather boots or mountain boots
Waterproof, breathable shell jacket and pants that are appropriate for local climates and anticipated weather conditions
Layers of clothing to allow for ranges in temperature and exertion; use “water-compatible” materials (e.g., fleece, wool, polypropylene [Polypro]) that absorb less water and maintain loft and warmth
Leather (durable) and weather-resistant shell gloves
Sunglasses (with side shields or wrap-around) to minimize ultraviolet light and water exposure; goggles in winter
Bivouac (“bivi”) gear for unanticipated nights out
Survival supplies (e.g., knife, garbage bags/bivi sack, duct tape, whistle, candles and fire starter, waterproof matches, flares, smoke signal, signal mirror)
Search Tactics
During the initial (locate) phase of the incident, emphasis is on searching for the subject
Indirect techniques (e.g., not requiring actual field searching) are usually quicker and easier to apply, so they are started first
Confining the search area to limit movement of the subject and others into and out of the area
Identifying and protecting the point last seen or the last known position
Attracting the attention of the subject if he or she is expected to be responsive
Quick-response resources are usually begun in areas where early success is most likely
Direct techniques include sending teams of searchers into an area to look for clues and the subject. In certain circumstances, drones may be helpful
A fast, relatively low coverage search of high-probability, unbounded areas is called a hasty search. This type of search would be conducted at campsites, buildings, and other locations where the subject would likely be found
High-coverage techniques, which are slow, highly systematic area searches, are used when the highest probability of detection is required.
Search Resources
Resources are defined as all personnel and equipment available or potentially available for assignment to support the search effort. Specific types of active tactics are categorized by the resource that performs them, such as dog teams, human trackers, ground search teams, and aircraft. Other common resources include management teams (e.g., overhead teams, public information officers), water-trained responders (e.g., river rescue, divers), cold weather responders (e.g., ice climbers, avalanche experts, ski patrollers), specialized vehicle responders (e.g., snowmobiles, four-wheel-drive trucks, all-terrain vehicles, mountain bikes, horses), and technical experts (e.g., communications experts, interviewers, chemists, rock climbers, physicians, cavers, drone handlers).
Dogs
Dog teams are composed of a dog (occasionally more than one) and a human handler
The dog uses scent to search for and follow a subject while the handler interprets signals from the dog and searches visually for evidence
Three common categories are tracking, trailing, and air-scenting dogs
Human Trackers
Human trackers use their visual senses to search for evidence left by a person in passing. In SAR, most trackers use a stride-based approach called the step-by-step method. This simple, methodical approach emphasizes finding every piece of possible evidence left by a subject. Its most important role is undoubtedly the ability to quickly determine the direction of travel of the subject and thus limit the search area.
Ground Search Teams
Hasty Teams
A hasty team is an initial response team of well-trained, self-sufficient, and highly mobile searchers whose primary responsibility is to check out the areas (e.g., trails, roads, road heads, campsites, lakes, clearings) most likely to first produce the subject or clues
Hasty teams should include two or three individuals who are knowledgeable about tracking
Hasty teams should be clue oriented, familiar with the local terrain and dangers in the area, and completely self-sufficient
Hasty teams should carry all the equipment they might need to assist themselves and the lost subject for at least 24 hours.
Grid Teams
Grid searchers use a more systematic approach to searching. They usually examine a well-defined, often small, territory to discover evidence
The classic approach to grid searching involves several individuals standing in a line, shoulder-to-shoulder, walking through an area in search of evidence or subjects
When the subject of a search is a live person, searching in this thorough manner should be used only as a last resort, because it is slow and covers limited territory for the amount of time and resources utilized.
Aircraft and Drones
Aircraft and drones serve the same purpose as grid searchers, only from a greater distance, at a greater speed, over a larger area, and usually with a lower level of thoroughness
Within a search effort, aircraft can serve both as a tactical tool to look for clues and as transportation for personnel and equipment.
Search Planning Considerations
Search effectiveness also has been improved through the study of human behavior, statistics, probabilities, and leadership, and using good planning and management principles. Search planning is guided by two general considerations: where am I going to look for the lost or missing person (strategy), and how am I going to find this missing or lost person (tactics)? To be effective, modern searchers follow basic principles and techniques that include:
Respond urgently—search is an emergency.
Confine the search area.
Search for clues and the subject.
Search at night if the risk of darkness can be mitigated.
Search with a plan and in an organized manner.
Use grid searching (high coverage) as a last resort.
Satellite Communicators
Technology now includes satellite communicators that can provide improved geographic location information, texting capabilities, and voice communications through low earth–orbit satellite networks with extensive global coverage. The devices allow tracking by remote parties and much more precise geographic location services, which could preclude or replace the need for activation of an emergency beacon, such as a PLB. DeLorme offers the inReach series of satellite communicators; SPOT offers the SPOT Gen3 satellite communicator; and Iridium offers a number of satellite-based options, including the Iridium GO!.
